Calorimetry and Hesss Law Essay Example for Free

Calorimetry and Hesss Law Essay Elemental magnesium is one of the principal components of flares used to illuminate nighttime activities, or to aid in signaling one’s location to aircraft and ships. Your instructor may ignite a strip of magnesium ribbon to demonstrate the combustion of magnesium in air. It will be evident that a great deal of light energy is released from this reaction. A direct method for measuring the heat produced by this reaction would be difficult, so we shall resort to an indirect method in this experiment as discussed below. Some chemical reactions (including the one above) are associated with the evolution of thermal energy and are called exothermic reactions. When there is absorption of energy in a chemical reaction, the process is called endothermic. The magnitude of the energy change is determined by the particular reaction as well as the amount of product(s) formed. The thermal energy transferred in a balanced chemical reaction carried out at constant pressure is called the enthalpy of reaction (or heat of reaction) and is  given the symbol ΔHrxn. ΔHrxn is often expressed in units of kJ/mole where mole refers to the amount of a reactant or a product involved in the reaction. In general, the reactant or product must be specified. In this experiment, you will measure the enthalpy changes of several exothermic reactions utilizing a simple calorimeter. This calorimeter consists of an insulated vessel (a Styrofoam cup), a thermometer, and a lid (which is loose fitting to allow the pressure to remain constant. The energy given off by any reaction carried out in the calorimeter is absorbed by both the calorimeter and the solvent (water). This causes an increase in the temperature of the calorimeter and solvent that can be me asured by a thermometer. The heat that is absorbed by the calorimeter and solvent is calculated from the equation: qcal = C â‹… ΔT (1) where C is the heat capacity of the calorimeter and solvent, and ΔT is the change in temperature of the water (the solvent) in the calorimeter. Heat capacity is defined as the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of an object by 1  °C. In this experiment, the vessel and the amount of solvent remain constant, so C is a constant. Enthalpy is an extensive quantity, so the amount of heat generated by the reaction is given by the expression: qrxn = n â‹… ΔH (2)  where n is the number of moles of a specific reactant or product and ΔH is the enthalpy change of the reaction in kJ/mol. Since the energy of the universe is conserved, the total energy change of the system (the reaction) and surroundings (calorimeter and solvent) is equal to zero. These relationships can be combined as shown in equation (3). qsystem + qsurroundings = qreaction + qcalorimeter = n⋅ΔH + C⋅ΔT = 0 (3) This equation can be rearranged to determine either C or ΔH as shown in equations (4) and (5). C = − n⋅ΔH/ΔT (4) ΔH = − C⋅ΔT/n (5) For exothermic reactions, ΔH 0 and ΔT 0. The main experimental problem in any calorimetric measurement is obtaining an  accurate value of ΔT. The initial temperature, Ti, of the reactants can be determined directly using a thermometer. However, it is difficult to obtain a precise value for the final temperature, Tf (the instantaneous temperature when the reactants are mixed together and react), because (1) reactions do not occur instantaneously, and (2) calorimeters are not perfectly insulating, but actually allow some heat energy to slowly enter or escape from the calorimeter over time. This occurs both during the reaction and after its completion. If an exothermic reaction occurs in a hypothetical calorimeter that is perfectly insulated, all of the heat produced by the reaction will remain in the calorimeter, resulting in a constant final temperature. This would yield the same ΔT whether or not the reaction is instantaneous. Now consider a hypothetical exothermic reaction that occurs instantaneously, but in a realistic calorimeter that is not perfectly insulated. In this case, the temperature of the calorimeter would diminish over time due to the gradual escape of heat energy to the surroundings. ï€  The â€Å"final† temperature to be used in determining ΔT in this case is actually the maximum temperature reached immediately after reaction occurs, since this temperature change is due exclusively to the heat produced in the reaction, and no escaping of heat to the surroundings has occurred yet. For real calorimeter experiments, reactions neither occur instantaneously nor are calorimeters perfectly insulated. Thus, during an exothermic reaction the temperature of the calorimeter increases initially, but never has a chance to reach the correct maximum â€Å"final† temperature since heat is escaping to the surroundings even while the reaction is proceeding toward completion. A correction for this heat exchange is made by an extrapolation process using the temperature vs. time curve (see Figure 1). First, a plot of the temperature readings as a function of time for the reaction is generated. By extrapolating only the linear portion of the curve (e.g., the points including and after the maximum temperature) back to zero time (the time when the reactants were mixed in the calorimeter), Tf is obtained. The Tf value determined in this manner will be the temperature that the calorimeter and the solvent would have reached, had the reaction occurred instantaneously and with no heat exchange to the room. This value should be used for the calculation of change in temperature, ΔT. Consult with your TA for specific instructions for extrapolation using Microsoft Excel. A. Determination of the Enthalpy of Combustion of Mg Using Hess’s Law The calorimeter will be used to determine the enthalpy of combustion of magnesium by application of Hess’s law. Consider the following reactions: (a) H2(g) +  ½ O2 (g) → H2O (l) ΔHa = − 285.84 kJ/mole (b) Mg(s) + 2 H+ (aq) → Mg2+ (aq) + H2 (g) ΔHb (c) Mg2+ (aq) + H2O (l) → MgO (s) + 2 H+ (aq) ΔHc By adding equations (a), (b), and (c) we obtain (d) Mg (s) +  ½ O2 (g) → MgO (s) ΔHrxn = ΔHa + ΔHb + ΔHc which represents the combustion of Mg(s). Reaction (a) represents the formation of liquid water from its constituent elements. The enthalpy change for this reaction, symbolized ΔHa above, is the standard heat of formation of liquid water (or ΔHf (H2O)) and is a known quantity. ΔHb and ΔHc will be determined experimentally by measuring the temperature rise when known masses of magnesium metal and magnesium oxide, respectively, are added to hydrochloric acid. Reaction (c) as written is an endothermic reaction. Since it is easier to perform the reverse (exothermic) reaction, the data you collect will be of opposite sign to that needed for the Hess’s law calculation for reaction (d). When data from your analysis is correctly combined with that for the known reaction (a), the enthalpy of combustion of magnesium metal can be obtained. PROCEDURE: Note: Handle the Styrofoam cups gently. They will be used by other lab sections! A. Determination of the Enthalpy of Combustion of Magnesium Reaction of Magnesium Metal and Hydrochloric Acid 1. Using the graduated cylinder, add 50.0 mL of 1.0 M HCl to the empty calorimeter. Wait for a few minutes to allow the set-up to reach thermal  equilibrium. 2. While waiting, determine the mass of a sample of magnesium ribbon (about 0.15 g) on the analytical balance, and then wrap it with a piece of copper wire. The copper will not react in the solution; its purpose is to prevent the magnesium from floating to the surface during the reaction. Do not wrap the magnesium too tightly or it will not react quickly enough with the HCl solution. Do not wrap the magnesium too loosely since it may escape the copper â€Å"cage† and float. 3. Using LoggerPro, start a run of 500 seconds with the temperature probe in the 1.0 M HCl in the calorimeter (with lid). 4. The magnesium/copper bundle is added to the HCl solution. Replace the lid with the thermometer in place, and begin swirling to mix. Be sure to support the temperature probe. Continue swirling and collecting data and record about 300 seconds or until the temperature starts decreasing. This will provide the linear part of the curve, and are the most important points for the extrapolation procedure. 5. When data collection is completed, rinse the calorimeter and thermometer with distilled water and dry as completely as possible. Place the piece of copper in the container labeled â€Å"copper waste.† B. Reaction of Magnesium Oxide and Hydrochloric Acid 1. Place 50.0 mL of 1.0 M HCl into a clean graduated cylinder. 2. On a top-loading balance, transfer approximately 0.7 to 0.8 g of MgO to a clean weighing boat (no need to record this mass). Next, determine the mass of the MgO and the weighing boat on the analytical balance and record the data. Transfer the MgO to the dry calorimeter. 3. On the analytical balance, record the mass of the â€Å"empty† weighing boat after the transfer and calculate the mass of MgO actually transferred to the calorimeter. 4. Record the initial temperature (Ti) of the 1.0 M HCl solution in the graduated cylinder. 5. Note the time (time = zero) and add the 50.0 mL of 1.0 M HCl to the calorimeter containing the MgO. 7-8 points after the temperature maximum. In this reaction all the MgO should react since HCl is used in excess. However, if the solid MgO is allowed to sit on the bottom or sides of the cup it will not dissolve and hence it will not react. Make sure the solution is mixed constantly but gently. (NOTE: Before discarding this solution, check to see that all of the MgO has reacted. If solid MgO remains, the results from this portion of the experiment are not accurate. If any solid is present, this portion of the experiment must be repeated.)  6. When data collection is completed, rinse the calorimeter and thermometer with distilled water and dry as completely as possible.

History Of Social Services In England Social Work Essay

History Of Social Services In England Social Work Essay In 1992 the Department of Health (DH) and the then, Social Services Inspectorate, in England, published the findings of a survey of two social services Departments in relation to abuse. This publication found there to be a lack of assessments in large numbers of elder abuse cases and little evidence of inter-agency cooperation. The report recommended guidelines to assist social services in their work with older people (DH/SSI 1992). During the 1990s concerns had been raised throughout the UK regarding the abuse of vulnerable adults. The social services inspectorate published Confronting elder abuse (SSI 1992) and following this, practice guidelines No longer afraid (SSI 1993). No longer afraid provided practice guidelines for responding to, what was acknowledged at that time, as elder abuse. It was aimed at professionals in England, Wales and Northern Ireland and emphasised clear expectations that policies should be multi-agency and also include ownership and operational responsibilities (Bennett et al 1997). This guidance was issued under section 7 of the Local Authority Social Services Act 1970 and gives local authority Social Service departments a co-ordinating role in the development and implementation of local vulnerable adult policies and procedures. In 2000, the department of Health published the guidance No Secrets. The purpose of No Secrets was aimed primarily at local authority social services departments, but also gave the local authority the lead in co-ordinating other agencies i.e. police, NHS, housing providers (DOH 2000). The guidance does not have the full force of statute, but should be complied with unless local circumstances indicate exceptional reasons which justify a variation (No Secrets, 2000) The aim of No Secrets was to provide a coherent framework for all responsible organisations to devise a clear policy for the protection of vulnerable adults at risk of abuse and to provide appropriate responses to concerns, anxieties and complaints of abuse /neglect (DOH 2000). Scotland Historical In December 2001, the Scottish Executive published Vulnerable Adults: Consultation Paper (2001 consultation) (Scottish Executive, 2001). This sought views on the extension of the vulnerable adults provisions to groups other than persons with mental disorder and the possible introduction of provisions to exclude persons living with a vulnerable adult, where the adults health is at risk. A joint inquiry was conducted by the Social Work Services Inspectorate and the Mental Welfare Commission for Scotland. Both of these agencies were linked with the central government of Scotland who had responsibility for the oversight of social work services and care and treatment for persons with mental health problems. In the report by the Scottish Executive (2004), a case of a woman who was admitted to a general hospital with multiple injuries from physical and sexual assault and who had a learning disability became the focus for change for Scotland in terms of adults who have been abused. The police investigation identified a catalogue of abuse and assaults ranging back weeks and possibly longer. In June 2003 the Minister for Education and Young People, Peter Peacock MSP, asked the Social Work Services Inspectorate (SWSI) to carry out an inspection of the social work services provided to people with learning disabilities by Scottish Borders Council. At the same time, the Mental Welfare Commission for Scotland (MWC) also undertook an inquiry into the involvement of health services, though worked closely with SWSI during its inquiry. The two bodies produced separate reports, but also published a joint statement (MWC and SWSI, 2004), which summarised their findings and stated their recommendations. The findings included: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ a failure to investigate appropriately very serious allegations of abuse à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ a lack of information-sharing and co-ordination within and between key agencies (social work, health, education, housing, police) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ a lack of risk assessment and failure to consider allegations of sexual abuse a lack of understanding of the legislative framework for intervention and its capacity to provide protection à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ a failure to consider statutory intervention at appropriate stages The Adult Support and Protection (Scotland) Act 2007 (ASPA) is a result of the events that were known as the Scottish Borders Enquiry. Following the various police investigations, it was identified that there were historical links between the client and the offenders who were later prosecuted in terms of statements held by social services department detailing the offenders behaviour towards the woman and that this information was held on file. The Scottish Executive (2004) described the case as extremely disturbing but even more shocking to many that so many concerns about this woman had been made known and not acted on. As a consequence, 42 recommendations from the inquiry were made and there was a specific recommendation which was taken to the Scottish Executive and involved the provision of comprehensive adult protection legislation as a matter of urgency as there had been concerns raised from political groups and high profile enquiries to provide statute for the protection of adults at risk of abuse in Scotland (Mackay 2008). The Scottish framework links with three pieces of legislation. In 2000, the Adults with Incapacity (Scotland) Act [AWISA 2000] was passed and focused on protecting those without capacity with financial and welfare interventions for those unable to make a decisions. Second, the Mental Health (Care and Treatment) (Scotland) Act (2003) [MHSA (2003)] modernised the way in which care and treatment could be delivered both in hospital and the community and improved patients rights. Finally, the Adult Support and Protection (Scotland) Act (2007) [ASPSA (2007)] widened the range of community care service user groups who could be subject to assessment, and mainly short-term intervention, if they were deemed to be adults at risk of harm. Mackay (2008) argues that the Scottish arrangements both mirror and differ from those of England and Wales. She maps out the intervention powers for adults at risk of harm into a type of hierarchical structure known as a pyramid of intervention which aims to reflect the framework of the various pieces of Scottish legislation and goes onto say that the principle underlying all of the legislation is minimum intervention to achieve the desired outcome. Critique of definitions. In England, the No Secrets (2000) guidance defines a vulnerable adult as a person aged 18 or over and who is or may be in need of community care services by reason of mental or other disability, age or illness; and who is or may be unable to take care of him or herself, or unable to protect him or herself against significant harm or exploitation (DOH 2000 Section 2.3) The groups of adults targeted by No Secrets were those who is or may be eligible for community care services. And within that group, those who were unable to protect themselves from significant harm were referred to as vulnerable adults. Whilst the phrase vulnerable adults names the high prevalence of abuse experienced by the group, there is a recognition that this definition is contentious. ADSS (2005). The definition of a vulnerable adult referred to in the 1997 consultation paper Who Decides issued by the Lord Chancellors Department is a person: who is, or may be in need of Community Care Services by reason of mental or other disability, age or illness: and who Is, or may be unable to take care of him or herself, or unable to protect him or herself against significant harm or exploitation (Law Commission Report 231, 1995) There are however broader definitions of vulnerability which are used in different guidance and in the more recent Crime and Disorder Act (1998) it refers to vulnerable sections of the community and embraces ethnic minority communities and people rendered vulnerable by social exclusion and poverty rather than service led definitions. There is concern, however, that the current England framework is more restricted than it should be, and that the problem is one of definition. The House of Commons Health Committee, says that No secrets should not be confined to people requiring community care services, and that it should also apply to old people living in their own homes without professional support and anyone who can take care of themselves (House of Commons Health Committee, 2007). Even within the ADASS National Framework (2005) it has been argued that vulnerability seems to locate the cause of abuse with the victim, rather than placing responsibility with the acts or omissions of others (ADASS, 2005) The Law Commission speaks favourably of the Safeguarding Vulnerable Groups Act 2006, which, it says, understands vulnerability purely through the situation an adult is placed [in] (Law Commission, 2008). It is now becoming questionable whether the term vulnerable be replaced with the term at risk. If we were to look at the current legislation in England surrounding the investigations of abuse to adults, there are none, however there are underpinning pieces of legislation which whilst not in its entirety focus specifically on the adult abuse remit, but can be drawn upon to protect those most vulnerable. There are many duties underpinning investigations of adult abuse, but no specific legislation. The NHS and Community Care Act 1990, section 47 assessments can be implemented in order to consider an adults need for services and can therefore consider any risk factors present at the time of the assessment. From this, assessment and commissioned services can support people who have been abused or can prevent abuse from occurring. The National Assistance Act (1948) deals with the welfare of people with disabilities and states that the: local authority shall make arrangements for promoting the welfare of person whosuffers from a mental disorderwho are substantially and permanently handicapped by illness, injury or congenital deformity or other disabilities and gives power to provide services arising out of an investigation out of the NHS Community care Act 1990. (Mantell 2009). The Fair Access to Care Services 2003 (FACS) recognises that community care services will be a vital aspect of adult protection work (Spencer- Lane, 2010). Interestingly the eligibility criteria that superseded Fair Access to Care from April 2010 (Prioritising Need in the context of Putting People First: A whole systems approach to eligibility for Social Care), continues to place adults who are experiencing, or at risk of experiencing abuse or neglect, in Critical and substantial needs criteria banding, as FACS did. Another definition of a vulnerable adult is cited within The Safeguarding Vulnerable Groups Act (2006), (SVG Act 2006), and defines a vulnerable adult as: A person is a vulnerable adult if he has attained the age of 18 and: (a)he is in residential accommodation, (b)he is in sheltered housing, (c)he receives domiciliary care, (d)he receives any form of health care, (e)he is detained in lawful custody, (f)he is by virtue of an order of a court under supervision by a person exercising functions for the purposes of Part 1 of the Criminal Justice and Court Services Act 2000 (c. 43), (g)he receives a welfare service of a prescribed description, (h)he receives any service or participates in any activity provided specifically for persons who fall within subsection (9), (i)payments are made to him (or to another on his behalf) in pursuance of arrangements under section 57 of the Health and Social Care Act 2001 (c. 15), or (j)he requires assistance in the conduct of his own affairs. This particular act appears to take an alternative approach to the term vulnerability. It refers to places where a person is placed and is situational. (Law Commission, 2008). Following the consultation of No Secrets, one of the key findings of the consultation was the role that the National Health Service played in relation to Safeguarding Vulnerable adults and their systems. The Department of Health produced a document titled Clinical Governance and Adult Safeguarding- An Integrated Process (DOH 2010). The aim of the guidance is to encourage organisations to develop processes and systems which focused on complaints, healthcare incidents and how these aspects fall within the remit of Safeguarding processes and to empower reporting of such as it identified that clinical governance systems did not formally recognise the need to work in collaboration with Local Authorities when concerns arise during healthcare delivery. The definition of who is vulnerable in this NHS guidance, refers to the Safeguarding Vulnerable Groups Act (2006) and states that any adult receiving any form of healthcare is vulnerable and that there is no formal definition of vulnerability within health care but those receiving healthcare may be at greater risk from harm than others (DOH 2010). In the Care Standards Act 2000 it describes a Vulnerable adult as: (a) an adult to whom accommodation and nursing or personal care are provided in a care home; (b) an adult to whom personal care is provided in their own home under arrangements made by a domiciliary care agency; or (c) an adult to whom prescribed services are provided by an independent hospital, independent clinic, independent medical agency or National Health Service body. Similar to the Safeguarding Vulnerable Groups Act, the Care Standards Act 2000 classifies the term vulnerable adult as situational and circumstantial rather than specific and relevant to a persons individual circumstance. Spencer-Lane (2010) says that these definitions of vulnerability in England have been the subject of increasing criticism. He states that the location of the cause of the abuse rests with the victim rather than the acts of others; that vulnerability is an inherent characteristic of the person and that no recognition is given that it might be contextual, by setting or place that makes the person vulnerable. Interestingly Spencer -Lane (2010) prefers the concept of adults at risk. He goes on to suggest a new definition that adults at risk are based on two approaches as the Law Commission feel that the term vulnerable adults should be replaced by adults at risk to reflect these two concerns: To reflect the persons social care needs rather than the receipt of services or a particular diagnosis What the person is at risk from whether or not the term significant harm should be used but would include ill treatment or the impairment of health or development or unlawful conduct which would include financial abuse Spencer-Lane (2010) also argues that with the two approaches above, concerns remain regarding the term significant harm as he feels the threshold for this type of risk is too high and whether the term in its entirety at risk of harm be used whilst encompassing the following examples: ill treatment; impairment of health or development; unlawful conduct. Unlike in Scotland, there are no specific statutory provisions for adult protection; the legal framework is provided through a combination of the common law, local authority guidance and general statute law (Spencer-Lane 2010). Whereby in England the term vulnerable adult is used, in Scotland the term in the Adult Support and Protection (Scotland) Act 2007 uses the term adults at risk. This term was derived by the Scottish Executive following their 2005 consultation were respondents criticised the word vulnerable as they believed it focussed on a person disability rather than their abilities, hence the Scottish executive adopted the term at risk (Payne, 2006). Martin (2007) questions the definition of vulnerability and highlights how the vulnerability focus in England leaves the deficit with the adult, as opposed to their environment. She uses the parallel argument to that idea of disabling environments, rather than the disabled person, within the social model of disability. She goes on to comment that processes within society can create vulnerability. People, referred to as vulnerable adults, may well be in need of community care services to enjoy independence, but what makes people vulnerable is that way in which they are treated by society and those who support them. It could be argues that vulnerability and defining a person as vulnerable could be construed as being oppressive. This act states that an adult at risk is unable to safeguard their own well-being, property, rights or other interests; at risk of harm and more vulnerable because they have a disability, mental disorder, illness or physical or mental infirmity. It also details that the act applies to those over 16 years of age, where in England the term vulnerable adult is defined for those over the age of 18 and for the requirement under the statute is that all of the three elements are met for a person to be deemed at risk. ADASS too supports the use of risk as the basis of adult protection, although its definition differs from the one used in Scotland. It states that an adult at risk is one who is or may be eligible for community care services and whose independence and wellbeing are at risk due to abuse or neglect (ADASS, 2005) The ASPSA (2007) act The Scottish Code of Practice states that no category of harm is excluded simply because it is not explicitly listed. In general terms, behaviours that constitute harm to others can be physical (including neglect), emotional, financial, sexual or a combination of these. Also, what constitutes serious harm will be different for different persons. (Scottish Government, 2008a p13). In defining what constitutes significant harm, No Secrets (2000) uses the definition of significant harm in who decides? No Secrets defines significant harm as:- harm should be taken to include not only ill treatment (including sexual abuse and forms of ill treatment which are not physical), but also the impairment of, or an unavoidable deterioration in, physical or mental health; and the impairment of physical, intellectual, emotional, social or behavioural developments (No Secrets, 2000. The ASPA (2007) act also goes onto detail that any intervention in an individuals affairs should provide benefit to the individual, and should be the least restrictive option of those that are available thus providing a safety net on the principles of the act (ASPA, 2007). The Adult Support and Protection (Scotland) Act 2007 says: harm includes all harmful conduct and, in particular, includes: conduct which causes physical harm; conduct which causes psychological harm (e.g. by causing fear, alarm or distress) unlawful conduct which appropriates or adversely affects property, rights or interests (e.g. theft, fraud, embezzlement or extortion) conduct which causes self-harm N.B conduct includes neglect and other failures to act, which includes actions which are not planned or deliberate, but have harmful consequences Interestingly the Mental Capacity Act 2005 (section 44) introduced a new criminal offence of ill treatment and wilful neglect of a person who lacks capacity to make a relevant decision. It does not matter whether the behaviour toward the person was likely to cause or actually caused harm or damage to the victims health. Although the Mental Capacity Act mainly relates to adults 16 and over, Section 44 can apply to all age groups including children (Code of Practice Mental Capacity Act 2005). The Association of Directors of Social Services (ADSS) published a National Framework of Standards to attempt to reduce variation across the country (ADSS 2005). In this document the ADSS 2005 updated this definition above to :- every adult who is or may be eligible for community care services, facing a risk to their independence (ADSS 2005 para 1.14). England and Scotland differences with policy/legislation Definition of vulnerability Three part definition to definition of at risk of harm Harm might be caused by another person or the person may be causing the harm themselves no category of harm is excluded simply because it is not explicitly listed. In general terms, behaviours that constitute harm to others can be physical (including neglect), emotional, financial, sexual, or a combination of these. Also, what constitutes serious harm will be different for different persons. Code of Practice, Scottish Government (2008) Defining vulnerable: adult safeguarding in England and Wales Greater level of contestation in defining VA in adults than children. Doucuments in wales and England are very similar. In safe hands document is greater but both are issued under the provision of section 7. Whilst they are guidance, there is a statutory footing behind them. No Secrets (DH2000) defines vulnerable in a particular way: Is a person who is or may be in need of community care services by reason of mental or other disability, age or illness; and who is or may be unable to take care of him or herself, or unable to protect him or herself against significant harm or exploitation. No Secrets paragraph 2.3 Lord Chancellors Department, Who Decides (1995) The ASP Act introduces new adult protection duties and powers, including: Councils duty to inquire and investigate Duty to co-operate Duty to consider support services such as independent advocacy Other duties and powers visits, interviews, examinations Protection Orders: assessment, removal, banning and temporary banning Warrants for Entry, Powers of Arrest and Offences Duty to establish Adult Protection Committees across Scotland Harm includes all harmful conduct and, in particular, includes: a) conduct which causes physical harm; b) conduct which causes psychological harm (for example: by causing fear, alarm or distress); c) unlawful conduct which appropriates or adversely affects property, rights or interests (for example: theft, fraud; embezzlement or extortion); and d) conduct which causes self-harm. An adult is at risk of harm if: another persons conduct is causing (or is likely to cause) the adult to be harmed, or the adult is engaging (or is likely to engage) in conduct which causes (or is likely to cause) self-harm N.B conduct includes neglect and other failures to act (Section 53)

How Do Eye witness Testimonials Affect Jury Decision Making

How Do Eye witness Testimonials Affect Jury Decision Making A mock-jury scenario was conducted to evaluate the effects that eye-witness testimonies had on 139 participants. In order to study the true affects the testimonies have on decision making process, eye-witness testimonies were manipulated into 3 different categories (credible eye-witness, discredited eye-witness and no eye-witness). Evidence by the prosecution and defence sides were also presented and were consistent across the three independent variable groups. In the past many theorist felt that inconsistencies in eye-witnesses testimonies have been the cause of many wrongful convictions (Neufeld, 2008; Wagstaff et al., 2003). These past beliefs have resulted in the development of this study and the hypothesis that, having any sort of eye-witness present would cause a dramatic influence in generating more guilty verdicts by the participants. However the study results were found to be inconclusive in supporting our hypothesis and possible reasons for this, as well as future studies w ere discussed. How Do Eye-witness Testimonials Affect Jury Decision Making? In a courtroom, jury members are presented with many forms of evidence in order to help manipulate the decision making process. A commonly used form of evidence that is presented by the prosecution side is called an eye-witness testimony. An eye-witness testimony is an observation that a third party had to a crime or incident that took place. The eye-witness will testify as to what they saw and also try to identify who committed the crime. As stated by Bradfield and Wells (2000), in 1972 in the case of Neil vs Biggers the court declared that for an eye-witness testimony to be valid, 5 criterias had to be met. These were (1) certainty of suspects identification, (2) quality of view the witnesses reports having of the suspect, (3) attention paid to suspect, (4) the degree to which the witnesses description of suspect match that of defendant and (5) time that has elapsed between witnessing crime and identification of suspect. These 5 criteria were later known as the 5 Biggers criteria. According to Rutledge (2001), eye-witness testimonies in most cases are amongst the most important forms of evidence that is presented. However it must be contrasted that although testimonies are an aid for decision making, there is a wide acceptance that eye-witness evidence is frequently unreliable and inaccurate (Neuschatz et al., 2007; Rutledge, 2001). Scholars have theorised that the acceptances of unreliable testimonies by jury members are largely the result of the high confidence level displayed by eye-witness at correctly identifying the suspect, when in fact they were incorrect (Luss Wells, 1994; Wells, Ferguson Lindsay, 1981). A possible cause to explain how these high confidence levels develop in an eye-witness has been linked to what theorist call the feedback effect. It was shown that feedback comments by police such as, well done or good, you identified him during interviewing process, had dramatic effects on the eye-witnesses confidence (Luss Wells, 1994; Wells Bradfield, 1998). Koriat, Lichtenstein and Fischhoff (1980, as cited in Wells, Ferguson Lindsay, 1981), went further and stated that this feedback led to eye-witnesses thinking of reasons that further supported the decision they have made regarding who they identified and the circumstances of the crime they felt they had observed. Rattner (1988, as cited in Bradfield Wells, 2000), further states that acceptance of mistaken identification is the largest single cause of wrongful conviction. Rattners statement was further demonstrated by mock-jury studies undertaken where it was shown that although there were inconsistencies in eye-witness testimonies, the majority of jury members delivered a verdict that the defendant was guilty (Lindsay, Wells OConnor, 1989; Wagstaff et al., 2003). Therefore because of the ever-increasing debate as to the reliability and validity of the statements made and the consequences it has in the jury decision making process, research into eye-witness testimonies is a valuable area of study. In the study it was hypothesised that firstly, having any sort of eye-witness will incur more guilty verdicts over non guilty verdicts. Secondly, it is hypothesised that with the presentation of a witness, the probability or confidence level that the suspect is guilty should increase over that of having no witness. Therefore the more credible a witness is, the more probability the participants should show of having a guilty verdict. Method Participants The study comprised a total of 139 PYB 102 students from Queensland University of Technology. Participants were recruited for this study by means of a consented volunteering process held during a tutorial session. The total number of students comprised of 107 females and 32 males whose age range varied between 17 to 51 years of age. This equates to an average age of 21.8 years and a standard deviation of 7.5 years. Design All participants were presented with an identical argument by the prosecution and defence lawyers, however the information regarding the eye-witness testimony were altered for participants to form 3 different points of view regarding the eye-witness testimony. Therefore, the independent variables in this study were the 3 different arguments that were presented regarding eye-witness testimonies (no eye-witness, discredited eye-witness and a credible eye-witness). The 2 dependent variables which were the outcomes of this study were the guilty or not guilty verdicts and the participants probability (confidence level) at the suspect committing the crime. Material Participants were given a sheet stating the crime scenario with relevant facts about the crime, suspect, circumstances of the arrest and evidence presented to jury in court. Other materials used in this study were pen and paper questionnaire. The questionnaire required a choice between a guilty or non guilty verdict along with a probability of guilt ranking from 0% to 100%. Procedure Each participant received information regarding a crime scenario. Information given, stated how the crime took place and how the suspect was arrested. Participants were also advised by the prosecution side of the evidence that was found in the suspects possession or on suspects hands and shoes. The defence team also presented their side, stating a counter-reason behind the evidence and possessions being claimed by the prosecution side. Participants were also given information regarding eye-witness testimonies. The information regarding eye-witness testimonies were used as an independent variable in the study and were altered into 3 scenarios which affected the accuracy of the testimonies. Group 1 was presented with information that had no eye-witness statements while group 2 was presented with an eye-witness who had witnessed the crime but was not wearing his glasses at the time and was legally declared blind. Group 3 was presented with an eye-witness who claimed to have seen the incident and had no issues regarding his sight. After being presented with all the information, participants were asked to do two separate tasks. Task 1 was a categorical task whereby participant had to select whether they felt the suspect was guilty or not guilty. The second task was to numerically state the probability that the suspect was guilty. This confidence level had a possible value which ranged from 0% probability (absolutely not confident that suspect committed the crime) to 100% probability (absolutely confident the crime was committed by suspect). Results Table 1 shows the decisions made by participants of guilty vs not guilty, while table 2 shows how probable the participants felt the suspect was guilty based on the eye-witness testimonies they were presented. Table 1. Decisions Made by Participants Based on Eye Witness Testimony. Experimental Condition Guilty Not Guilty No witness 15 (33%) 30(67%) Eye-witness 21(45%) 26(55%) Discredited eye-witness 7(15%) 40(85%) Table 2. Probability that Participants Felt Suspect was Guilty Based on Eye-Witness Testimony. Experimental Probability suspect Standard Condition Is Guilty Deviation No witness 45.22 22.36 Eye-witness 50.10 21.93 Discredited eye-witness 36.38 19.24 Discussion Results found that the percentage differences in guilty verdicts across all three groups were statistically significant using a chi-square test of independence which concluded that p = 0.007 existed ( x2 (2, N=139) = 9.94). Also the only probability or confidence level that was shown to be significant using independent sample t-test was only apparent between the difference in the eye-witness group and discredited eye-witness group. It was found that participants had a higher percentage of not guilty votes when presented with either a credible witness or a discredited witness and therefore the first hypothesis has been found to be inconclusive. As stated by Hosch, Beck, and McIntyre (1980), a majority of not guilty verdicts may have been chosen by jurors not because they felt that the defendant was innocent, rather they may have felt the evidence and eye witness testimonies had not proven guilt beyond a reasonable doubt. The second hypothesis was also found to be inconclusive in that although we expected having an eye-witness (discredited or credible) would have a higher probability or confidence level than having no eye-witness, our results contradicted this by showing that the no eye-witness group had more guilty verdicts than the discredited eye-witness group. However, in partial support of the second hypothesis, it must be noted that having a credible eye-witness did produce a higher probability of guilt than having no eye-witness. This outcome could be explained by the fact that participants understood the implications of guilty verdicts based on information which do not prove beyond a reasonable doubt. Another point to note is participants have access to internet websites that highlight information regarding suspects who were originally guilty due to evidence such as eye-witness testimonies, but have been exonerated through DNA testing. As supported on their website by Scheck and Neufeld (2008), eye-witness identification is frequently inaccurate and that eye-witness misidentification is the single greatest cause of wrongful convictions that were overturned through DNA testing. Another study which supports the second hypothesis is summarised by Kennedy and Haygood (1992), who states the discrediting of an eye-witness will undermine any influence the witness had on the decision making process. Limitations of this study included factors such as the study was a theoretical case and hadnt truly represented all factors that would be presented in a real courtroom, this included the limited evidence presented. Another point to note is that because of the theoretical example, participants couldnt incorporate true emotions that jurors felt when presented with in-depth evidence in real court situations such as the violent nature of crimes. Secondly participants with prior exposure to jury exposure may have a different outlook to decision making compared to participants who havent had previous exposure. These limitations could help devise future studies by comparing studies with only non-exposed jury participants against exposed participants. In summary, it has been found that this study was inconclusive to determine if the hypothesis could truly be rejected. Therefore it would be advisable to perform further studies in the future in order to further develop a better understanding on how eye-witness testimonials affect jury decision making process.

Things Fall Apart Essay example -- essays research papers

Chinua Achebe's Things Fall Apart shows an odd similarity between the cultures of Ancient Greece and the Lower Niger. Despite the fact that two societies can exist during different periods of time and have conflicting cultural values, their stories and behavior can have surprising overlaps. Things Fall Apart is structured like a Greek Tragedy in its use of a chorus and in the presence of a tragic hero whose actions ultimately lead to his downfall. The Egwugwu from Things Fall Apart act like the chorus in a Greek Tragedy, such as Antigone. These figures, the elders of society who speak in behalf of the spirits, are present to provide background information and extra news It is imperative for the audience to know of this information for them to follow plot development. In both situations, these groups are the elders of the culture. A member of the Egwugwu tells Okonkwo to not take part in the killing of Ikemefuna, but Okonkwo disobeys the order and slays Ikemefuna himself. Just as the chorus of a Greek Tragedy relays the messages of the gods to the citizens of the town, during certain rituals, the Egwugwu convey the teachings of important spirits. Their influence is displayed when they hear the case of Uzowulu, who is soon forced to beg his wife to return to him. This shows that the orders of the Egwugwu are always followed, weather the citizens want to or not. These teachings and directions are not alterable, and must always be obeyed. Like the heroes of Greek Tragedy, Okonk...

I Never Attended a Traditional School :: Personal Narrative Writing

I Never Attended a Traditional School My schooling was never anything near normal. I never went to normal school or what everyone would call traditional school with a curriculum for any length of time. It is not uncommon now to meet home-schooled children or hear of how home-schooled children participate with traditionally schooled children, but in my time, people would look at me strangely if I were not in school. "Honey, why aren't you in school?" was the dreaded question. I could almost feel truant officers watching me in the shadows while I answered back. In my mind, truant officers were like policemen who would put bad children in jail and feed them only bread and water. "We just moved... I will be in the local school soon," I would answer. After the interrogation I would hang my head in shame. I felt like a social outcast, too old for preschool, and yet too young to be a school dropout. I would dig my heels into the ground, staring at my shiny red shoes and my white lacy socks. I wanted to disappear from the face of the earth by somehow digging myself into a deep hole in the ground. My younger sister was spared the humiliation since she was still an infant and was of preschool age when we finally stopped our travels and settled into a neighborhood for a while. "Mummy, why can't I just go to school like everyone else?" I would ask her in dismay after those dreaded incidents. My world felt gray and a funny unhappy feeling would sink into my stomach. My mother would turn her beautiful face towards me, the perfect socialite, the model body, with the presence of an actress. She was oblivious to my distress. I knew she would laugh off my fears just as she laughed off her own most of her life. "We move too much...and you are very lucky...it's not common to see the world as you do. It's much better that I take you when you're still little and can catch up with school. Many children would really envy you. You get enough of an education by traveling with me," she would answer. I often wondered why I could not be as cool and collected as the beautiful stranger who was my own mother. Instead, I was shy and lacked much self-esteem. I was plagued by fears and a mouth that would button itself in the most critical moments.

Spoilage Rates

India Agriculture Spoilage Data Per 2010  FAO  world agriculture statistics, India is the world's largest producer of many fresh  fruits  and vegetables,  milk, major  spices, select fresh meats, select fibrous crops such as  jute, several staples such as  millets  and  castor oil  seed. India is the second largest producer of  wheat  and  rice, the world's major  food staples. India is also the world's second or third largest producer of several  dry fruits, agriculture-based  textile  raw materials,  roots  and  tuber  crops,  pulses, farmed  fish,  eggs,  coconut,  sugarcane  and numerous  vegetables.India ranked within the world's five largest producers of over 80% of agricultural produce items, including many  cash crops  such as  coffeeand  cotton, in 2010. India is also one of the world's five largest producers of livestock and poultry meat, with one of the fastest growth rates, as of 2011. India exported about 2 billion kilograms each of wheat and rice in 2011 to Africa, Nepal, Bangladesh and other regions of the world. Aquaculture and catch fishery  is amongst the fastest growing industries in India.Between 1990 and 2010, Indian fish capture harvest doubled, while aquaculture harvest tripled. In 2008, India was the world's sixth largest producer of marine and freshwater capture fisheries, and the second largest aquaculture farmed fish producer. India exported 600,000 metric tonnes of fish products to nearly half of all the world's countries. Lack of cold storage and harvest spoilage causing over 30% of farmer's produce going to waste, India lacks cold storage, food packaging as well as safe and efficient rural transport system.This causes one of the world's highest food spoilage rates, particularly during Indian monsoons and other adverse weather conditions. Food travels to the Indian consumer through a slow and inefficient chain of traders. Indian consumers buy agricultural produce in suburban markets known as ‘sabzi mandi' such as one shown or from roadside vendors. As per the report by Shri M. S. Swaminathan (Planning Commission 1981), up to 40% of certain fruits and vegetables go waste due to their perishable nature and non-availability of appropriate post harvest infrastructure. As per nother study (TIFAC – 1996), wastage in certain food is as high as over 30% and in vegetables the losses are up to 20% to 30% at the post harvest stages due to poor storage, transportation, lack of infrastructure and the inadequacy of the marketing set-up. As per this report, India wastes more fruits and vegetables than are consumed in a country like U. K. The total wastage in all food sectors is high and worth Rs. 500,000 million. It is also estimated that the wastage cost of fruits and vegetables is Rs. 350,000 millions per year which is four to five times than those of food grains.Even in food grains the loss is reckoned at 5-10% on account of insect infestatio n and inadequate storage. Types of Food Spoilage Food spoilage and contamination are defined as those adverse changes in quality caused by the action of specific conditions or agents that induce physical and chemical changes and also includes micro-organisms, insect, bird and rodent pests. Mechanical damage is also instrumental in spoilage. Bruises and wounds are such defects, which frequently cause chemical and microbial spoilage.The primary causes of food spoilage include the following: †¢ Biological – these include micro-organisms like bacteria, yeasts and molds, and other agents like insects, rodents and birds †¢ Chemical – these include enzymatic or non-enzymatic reactions †¢ Physical – these include breakage, bruises, crushing and cut or otherwise dismembered surfaces Figure 2 depicts the â€Å"Food Pipeline† and summarises the physical and biological ways of occurrence of food loss. Meat and Poultry Processing The production of meat is steadily increasing with an annual production of 4. million tonnes, which is contributed mainly by pigs followed by sheep, goat, buffalo and poultry meat. Meat producing industry in India is largely confined to the unorganised sector and there is very limited upgradation of technology. The constraints are absence of farms for rearing meat producing animals and absence of cold-chain facilities. The market for scientifically and hygienically produced meat products is expected to grow rapidly due to constantly developing urbanisation. As a result of changing lifestyles, the21 demand for ready–to–cook food is growing rapidly.Overall very little of meat production is scientifically produced, processed and packaged as branded products. Most meat consumed in India is in fresh form. Less than 1% of meat is processed into value-added products like sausages, ham, bacon, luncheon meat, kababs meat balls etc. Figure 6 gives the production of meat and meat products. Lack of cold chain demand makes the cold chain infra costly (more demand – more competition – lesser price), the additional cost (in comparison with non cool chain products) eventually gets loaded on the products serviced through high cost cold chain.Now, if supposedly some inferior product is available at a lesser price, very few in India shall buy a superior product serviced through cold chain, particularly when product in question is considered â€Å"fresh† only when it comes outside the controlled atmosphere (read cold store). Remember – fresh peas here sells @ Rs 150 a kg during off seasons against frozen at Rs 50 Kg. You need to have customers. Therefore, I am of the view that future demand for cold chain in India shall be driven not by fresh foods but by foods and pharmaceutical categories which compulsorily requires cold chain.Ready to eat frozen products, frozen vegetables, imported fruit etc comes to mind here. If these categories grow in India – inf ra to handle this shall automatically grow. Increased growth of cold chain shall drive down the cold chain price for more adopters to follow, reducing the cost. I can foresee a strong correlation between cold chain growth with growth of microwave ovens. At the end of the day it is all about markets. It is not only the demand of right products that hinders the growth of cold store industry in India, services too share equal blameFew years back we built a world class cold storage infra for potatoes and apples at the only clock auction market for fruit and vegetables in India. This cold stores had all the modern bells and whistles like pallets, forklift, screw compressors et al. Know what happened. Third party apple storage for trading at this store turned out to be a non-starter as apple trading in India is based on samples for small lots which could not be drawn out for inspection by traders as quickly as they are drawn out in an ambient environment or a traditional cold store.Moral of the story. Trade’s service demand dictate the cold storage needs. FTA agreements July 23, 2012 –  The Honourable Ed Fast, Minister of International Trade and Minister for the Asia-Pacific Gateway, today met with representatives of the Canada-India Business Council in Montreal, where he highlighted the launch of a fifth round of negotiations toward a Canada-India trade agreement.A Canada-India joint study concluded that a trade agreement between the two countries could boost Canada’s economy by at least $6  billion. Reference: http://www. thestar. com/news/world/article/1176287–india-s-wheat-left-to-rot-due-to-lack-of-storage http://anilchopra. com/blog/personal/why-cold-storage-industry-is-not-growing-in-india/ http://smallb. in/sites/default/files/knowledge_base/best_practices/RoleofplasticsinconservationofFoodResources. pdf

Creation, the Fall, and the Journey of Redemption

Describe how the architecture and rituals associated with early catholic cathedrals represent the Creation, the Fall, and the journey of Redemption that leads back to the presence of God. Include in your essay a discussion of the east-west orientation of the cathedral, the atrium, the baptistery or baptismal font, anointing, and the symbolic layout of the structure. Creation begins with the fall and continues as a journey towards redemption through the resurrection. Catholics are well known for their elaborate Cathedrals. Some are so famous that people travel from all over the world to admire its artistic workmanship. In Christianity the Catholic denomination is the largest denomination. The leader being the Pope who lives in Rome, Italy. The Catholic Church with their symbols can be related closely to that of what is found in LDS symbols. Many of the most sacred of ceremonies from these two religions are closely alike. This is due because they both originate from Hebrew origins in symbolic meaning behind the ceremonies. Cathedrals and LDS Temples can be related as a house here on earth dedicated to God. Cathedrals were set apart with the best the people had to offer. Examples of materials used to build the Cathedrals were purple, purple die was the most expensive dye in previous times, blue dye, red dye, silver, and gold. The stained glass and wall art was used to tell the stories of creation, struggles, faith, hope, and redemption. We can relate this to LDS temples because we try to build temples with only the best of materials. It is filled as white, blue, and gold linings. Temples are usually eloquent but they try to avoid from over expressing beauty in the temple and keep in clean. This is because one theme of LDS temples is clean. It is a place where clean beings can dwell, for example, God and even our souls because of the redemption power of God. Endless novels have been written about the fall. Perhaps the biggest change that has happened in the Catholic Church is when the ordinance of baptism started changing over time. Sometimes the change is a good thing because God will’s it. An example of this is when Joseph Smith first gave the temple ceremonies and ordinances it took 6 hours for the endowment session. Things are much different today. Other times things change because with time we forget, or at the very least we unknowingly change things. I remember a story when because of wars some LDS churches in Germany worked as best as they could under the circumstances. Eventually when the war was done and higher LDS officials were able to come into Germany and visit the Saints something astonishing happened. It had only been a matter of a few years and yet the way the Sacrament was being administered was not in line with the Church guidelines. Talk to Brother Openshaw on campus if you want a more credible and full detailed account of this story. The Journey of Redemption is all encompassing. I believe that everything in this mortal life has a creation, fall, and eventual redemption. The articles we read this week made strong bridges showing that Cathedrals perhaps paved the way for eventual LDS temples to be built. On a side note I find it to be a testimony builder for there to be so many similarities between LDS temples and the Catholic Church. It is true that we have more common than we do in difference. I believe God influences everyone around the world regardless of their religion. So when another group of people who are separate from us have so many of the same beliefs it gives me comfort knowing that God loves all men and women, and He reaches out to teach us and loves us all.